Contemporary Challenges: The Global Crime, Justice and Security Journal
Contemporary Challenges: The Global Crime, Justice and Security Journal (CCJ) is a student-led journal affiliated with the University of Edinburgh. CCJ was founded in 2020 by students from the MSc in Global Crime, Justice and Security and related programmes at Edinburgh Law School. Students are not only welcome but are strongly encouraged to submit their papers and thereby participate in the academic debate at the intersection of crime, justice and security that CCJ provides a platform for. CCJ is global in its outlook and interdisciplinary in nature. Our editorial board is made up of postgraduate students from a variety of disciplines including law, criminology and international relations. We believe that this diversity of academic backgrounds allows us to engage with contemporary challenges intersectionally and comprehensively - in short, in the way that the challenges of today demand.
Beyond Criminalisation: Green Criminology, Environmental Harm, and Sustainable Development Goal 15
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 15 seeks to protect terrestrial ecosystems, promote sustainable land use, and halt biodiversity loss; this commentary argues that green criminology provides one of the most valuable frameworks for achieving SDG 15 in the way it shifts the focus from legalistic definitions of crime to broader ecological ‘harms’ and a harm-based perspective. Criticisms of green criminology abound and highlight the need for nuanced and contextual application, which this commentary will suggest by addressing the environmental and humanitarian consequences of rare earth mining in Myanmar and how legal penalisation could be potentially ineffective in addressing ecological degradation under military-led governance. By integrating green criminology with regionally tailored policy and intervention, this essay suggests a pathway toward more effective environmental governance and sustainable development.
Copyright (c) 2025 Lucy Sharp https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Copyright (c) 2025 Sofia Negri Nunes de Abreu https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Africa, paving the way: Lessons from African actors pushing forward the international community’s role and responsibility in addressing genocide
Currently, international collective security and peace institutions are weathering a deep crisis in legitimacy for their systematic inability to protect populations from devastating genocides such as those ongoing Palestine, Sudan and the DRC. This essay examines whether lessons can be extracted from the attitudes of a continent that has historically struggled with high rates of mass atrocity crime, and has thus been driven to innovate in the field of international response. I find that, in expanding the power and the responsibility of the international community to intervene in protection of targeted peoples, African actors have been seminal in promoting a higher international normative standard of non-indifference towards atrocity. I look at three different dimensions of international activity to argue this: in a first part, I showcase the African Union’s innovative regional governance framework for identifying risks of mass atrocity and its unique sanctioning of unilateral military intervention in such instances. In a second part, I look at developments in international law concerning mass atrocity driven by African actors, such as their incubation of a regional criminal justice court to address transnational mass atrocity crime, their role in the genesis of the ICC, and finally the activism of both South Africa and The Gambia in expanding the scope of State responsibility before the ICJ. In a final part, I survey the African bloc’s diplomatic posture in the global political arena and show that together they have consistently advocated for larger responsibility of the international community towards victims of genocide. This has been made especially clear recently in light of African attitudes towards the ongoing Palestinian genocide. I conclude that, despite the persistence of regional challenges, legal and political innovation emanating from the African continent in the area constitutes a ripe field of inspiration in modelling better international protection of targets of mass atrocity.
Copyright (c) 2025 Iseult Daly https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Alternatives to Imprisonment for Female Prisoners in the MENA Region
Imprisonment aims to deter criminal behaviour and promote the rehabilitation of offenders. However, prisons often encounter challenges, particularly concerning female prisoners. Many facilities lack adequate support tailored to females needs, which exacerbates their difficulties. Special health and social services are crucial for their rehabilitation and for reducing stigma. Despite the rising number of female prisoners in the MENA region, there is limited research on their circumstances and potential alternative solutions within the criminal justice system. This study employs the doctrinal method, analysing secondary data from existing literature, official reports, and newspapers. Exploring alternatives to imprisonment could have a positive impact on female prisoners, providing a solution to mitigate the negative effects of incarceration and fostering healthier family dynamics in the MENA region.
Copyright (c) 2025 Reem Alhasan, Noora Alshaibani https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
How Terrorism Ends - Revisiting Cronin in Light of Contemporary Realities
This comment revisits Audrey Cronin’s How Terrorism Ends (2009), arguing for the need to reassess key aspects of her framework in light of significant developments since its publication. First, it highlights how the availability of new data and research (especially following the unprecedented rise and fall in global terrorist activity in the 2010s) offers a valuable opportunity to re-examine patterns of terrorist decline. Second, it explores how changes in the nature of terrorism, such as the rise of far-right extremism and lone-actor violence in Western countries, as well as the evolving role of digital technologies, point to the limitations of Cronin’s framework in today’s context. The findings warrant a broader and updated inquiry into how terrorism ends today.
Copyright (c) 2025 Pierre Musa Halime Wessel https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Paper Review: Maruna S. (2011), “Re-entry as a rite of passage”
This paper critically examines Shadd Maruna’s (2011) “Re-entry as a Rite of Passage”, which explores how structured rituals can facilitate the reintegration of ex-prisoners by reducing stigma and promoting social acceptance. Maruna argues that the absence of such rites contributes to high recidivism rates, proposing public acts of remorse and community involvement as solutions. While his framework offers valuable insights, this review highlights key limitations, including the oversimplification of societal attitudes, the ambiguity of “community,” and the neglect of mental health challenges. It concludes that while reintegration rituals hold promise, they must be supported by systemic reforms and targeted social policies for lasting impact.
Rite of Passage; Reintegration; Recidivism; Punishment & Society
Copyright (c) 2025 Rebekka Marcuk https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Changing the Carceral Course: How the Carceral Shift in Human Rights Met the Good Friday Agreement and Northern Ireland’s Abolitionist Imperative
Northern Ireland faces a growing police use of force, increased imprisonment of individuals suffering from mental ill-health, the lowest minimum age of criminality in Europe, and high reports of abuse against marginalised communities. Despite a decades-long movement for carceral abolition in the United Kingdom and a robust Northern Irish civil society human rights apparatus, reliance on police and prison as means of social control remains robust in Northern Ireland, as both the immediate custody and remand populations in prison have climbed to the highest they have been in almost 9 years. Why have carceral systems, such as police and prisons, persisted in Northern Ireland? This article argues that the carceral ‘turn’ in international human rights and historic marginalisation of economic, social, and cultural rights were incorporated into the Good Friday Agreement with the effect of anchoring reliance on carceral responses to social harms. This has continued well into the twenty-first century, despite growing criticism of such responses at the local and international levels. In response, this article suggests strengthening the alternatives to criminal legal systems that are already being pursued by carceral abolitionist and anti-carceral human rights advocacy organisations in Northern Ireland.
Copyright (c) 2025 Nate Johnson https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Collective Risk Allocation and Restorative Justice in the Age of Artificial Intelligence
This essay investigates the “responsibility gap” introduced by artificial intelligence (AI) within the criminal justice system and examines potential shifts from traditional punitive models to restorative justice frameworks. It begins by outlining the challenges AI poses to conventional concepts of criminal liability, focusing on issues of moral agency and accountability. The discussion progresses to collective risk allocation mechanisms in the context of AI development and deployment, highlighting the ethical and legal dilemmas that arise. Finally, the essay explores the potential for restorative justice to address harm caused by AI-related errors, proposing a justice model that prioritises dialogue, accountability, and the repair of harm. The essay argues that a shift from individual criminal liability to collective responsibility is essential to adapt justice systems to the complexities of AI while ensuring the effective protection of fundamental rights. By expanding on the interplay between technological advancements, ethical governance, and justice, this work proposes a comprehensive framework to address the profound societal implications of AI, offering a forward-looking perspective on justice systems in an increasingly AI-driven world.
Copyright (c) 2025 Maria Carla Canato https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Transnational Armed Conflicts: IAC or NIAC – The Lesser of Two Evils?
Characterization of ‘transnational armed conflicts’ as non-international armed conflicts [“NIAC”] or international armed conflicts [“IAC”] often makes more for an interesting oxonian corridor debate, especially when you’ve been taught by Prof. Dapo Akande and Judge Theodor Meron. For the purposes of international humanitarian law, I argue that transnational armed conflicts may be characterized as a classic NIAC. The factual model that I examine is as follows: A belligerent state [B] uses force against a non-state actor [N] on the territory of a territorial state [T]. Armed forces of T are not involved in the conflict and actions of N are not attributable to T. This argument hinges on four grounds: (1) Interpretation of the Geneva Conventions; (2) Rationale for separate legal regimes; (3) Consequential Reasons; and (4) Examination of counter-arguments.
Copyright (c) 2025 Shriya Maini, Raima Singh https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Copyright (c) 2025 Andy Aydın-Aitchison https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Book Review: Zabyelina, Yuliya, Between Immunity and Impunity: External Accountability of Political Elites for Transnational Crime
In Between Immunity and Impunity, Yuliya Zabyelina explores the challenges relating to accountability for profit-driven transnational crimes that destabilise global order. She provides a compelling account of the nature of these crimes and the impact that immunity has on victims’ ability to seek justice. By relying on a wide array of literature, jurisprudence, and governmental and non-governmental reports, Dr. Zabyelina both makes the case for the need for accountability and introduces the reader to various external accountability mechanisms. This book lays the groundwork for future research as it relates to policy considerations for immunity exceptions and the theorisation of how legal and political structures engender impunity for criminal elites.
Copyright (c) 2025 Caroline McKenna, Miles Ratcliffe https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Defending Women’s Rights: The Inter-American Court’s Role in Ensuring Justice for Gender-Based Violence Victims
This paper argues that the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR) has significantly enhanced the justiciability and remedies dimensions of women’s right to access justice in cases of gender-based violence. Through a holistic approach, the Court has demonstrated a commitment to addressing not only individual acts of violence but also the structural and systemic factors that perpetuate such violations. By analysing key jurisprudence, the paper illustrates how the IACtHR has expanded the legal standards for state accountability, strengthened due diligence obligations, and advanced reparative frameworks that go beyond individual redress to include transformative measures. Furthermore, the paper examines how national jurisdictions and international legal bodies have engaged with and integrated the Court’s jurisprudence, reinforcing its broader impact on the protection of women's rights. The findings suggest that the IACtHR has played a crucial role in shaping a more robust and enforceable legal framework for gender justice in the Inter-American system and beyond.
Copyright (c) 2025 Niesje Vanduffel https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Defining and legitimizing violence in the modern world
This article aims to explore understandings of violence beyond the use of force and aggression through an analysis of the persistent and evolving nature of violence within the context of late-stage capitalism, (neo)colonialism, and imperialism, arguing that violence is not just a physical or immediate phenomenon but also a systemic, symbolic, and slow process embedded within the structures of modern global societies, The text draws on the work of decolonial and Global South scholars to propose how despite decolonization movements, colonial legacies persist in the structures of neoliberalism, albeit in a less visible manner, and in the continued exploitation of the Global South by Global North countries through new forms of colonialism and capitalism. This piece proposes defining and understanding violence through different lenses and frameworks - acknowledging socio-political, economic, and structural factors and how they interplay into systems of oppression and harm to perpetuate violence; offering criticisms on violent legacies of the past as well as violent practices of the present through imperialism and different modern-day expressions of colonialism. Moreover, discussions on the weaponization of language to inflict and legitimize violence are explored, in tandem with presenting other conceptualizations of violence such as slow violence (with an environmentalist emphasis), economic exploitation through trade, and the forcing into debt of Global South countries in the name of development/modernity. To conclude, the text invites a critical reflection of the current economic and political systems and their impacts on our everyday lives to address the constant metamorphoses of violence as it continues to permeate the world we exist in and in different manifestations of violence beyond the use of force and aggression.
Copyright (c) 2025 Valeria Couttolenc Gonzalez https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Acknowledgment from the Editor-in-Chief and the Deputy Editors-in-Chief
Copyright (c) 2025 Sofia Negri Nunes de Abreu, Hevenly Padron, Sanjana Srivastava https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Copyright (c) 2025 Sofia Negri Nunes de Abreu, Sanjana Srivastava, Hevenly Padron https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Enforcing Human Rights Through Conventionality Control
Observing the practice of the Inter-American Court, this article will criticise the doctrinal effectiveness of conventionality control as a mode of regional enforcement of human rights. The article firstly criticises the theoretical argument that conventionality control is a more effective way to enforce state human rights compliance. Firstly, there is no actual legal basis both explicitly in the American Convention on Human Rights, and implicitly through precedent from the decision of Almonacid or by invocation of the principle of effectiveness. Without authority there is no normative reason for States to subject their own domestic law to the Inter-American Court to enforce human rights. Secondly, the article criticises the systematic illegitimacy in unjustifiably restraining the actions of democratically legitimate states. Systematic illegitimacy gives no normative reason for states to comply where their own democratic autonomy is denied and infringed, leading to non-compliance with human rights judgements. This is illustrated in the cases Gelman and Fontevecchia. Finally, this article proves these normative issues in practice through an empirical analysis of the low compliance rates in conventionality control judgements. The article then engages with the highly complied alternative friendly settlement process which by comparison proves that conventionality control is ineffective due to it’s lack of dialogue with the states. Therefore, if the states have no normative reasons to subject their domestic laws or comply with enforcement orders, and in practice conventionality control does not cause high compliance in contrast to non-maximalist dialogic mechanisms, then conventionality control is an ineffective mode of regional enforcement of human rights.
Copyright (c) 2025 Jack Dias-Harrison https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Learning from Global South Approaches to Tackle Refugee Crises - Assessing the Impact of Latin American Refugee Norms and Practices on the Global Compact on Refugees
With wars and civil unrest brewing in all corners of the world, many states are struggling with an increased influx of refugees. However, by being a refugee-producing as well as -accepting region, Latin America has developed a unique approach towards forced migration over the past decades, characterised by solidarity between states and with refugees. This paper argues that this put the region into a favourable position to influence the UN negotiations on the Global Compact on Refugees (GCR) between 2016 and 2018. Since valuable contributions to solve global problems by the Global South often remain underestimated or disregarded, the article highlights the extent to which Latin America’s participation, written statements, and regional conference papers may have impacted the creation of the GCR. It is explored how the Global Compact’s emphasis on solidarity and the linking of concepts like development and integration were likely shaped by the region’s inputs – potentially contributing to positive changes for the human rights of refugees.
Copyright (c) 2025 Hannah Kroker https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Male-Centred Norms and Intimate Partner Femicides: A Case Study in German Homicide Law
This paper examines male-centred norms and femicide from a feminist criminology perspective, conducting a case study of the German criminal law's response to intimate partner femicide. Focusing on the legal framework of homicide in the German Criminal Code (StGB), it critiques the doctrinal understanding of the statutory wording ‘despicable reasons’ in the context of femicide as perpetuating gendered biases rooted in male-centred norms. By analysing case law and feminist criminological scholarship, the paper highlights how the case law’s concept of ‘ordinary psychological motives’ fails to adequately address gendered violence. It calls for a different perception of ‘the ordinary’ to better reflect the gendered dynamics of intimate partner femicide on a case-by-case approach.
Copyright (c) 2025 David Linkerhaegner https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
“If I Have Nothing to Hide, I Have Nothing to Fear”: privacy, public and private surveillance in the digital age
The 'nothing to hide' argument has been described as the 'most common retort against privacy advocates': suggesting that state surveillance only threatens criminals, and ordinary, law-abiding citizens should have nothing to fear. This essay critically evaluates the 'nothing to hide' argument in light of surveillance in the digital age - both by governments and private actors. It will argue that people generally have things that they would rather keep private, and that breaches of this privacy can lead to 'information-based harms'. Whilst UK and European surveillance law has developed safeguards against these, there remain significant risks in the form of foreign and private surveillance. Ultimately, it contributes to an ongoing discourse about the limits of individual privacy, and the role of the internet in democratic societies.
Copyright (c) 2025 Jared Higgins https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
On the Margins: The Disenfranchisement of Communities in International Human Rights Law as Portrayed
This article conducts a comparative review of the perspectives presented in Rosa Ehrenreich Brooks' "Feminism and International Law: An Opportunity for Transformation" and Ratna Kapur's "The (Im)Possibility of Queering International Human Rights Law”. It examines the similarities in the authors' overarching understandings of the nature of the contemporary human rights system, on the one hand, and their converging views on the effectiveness of dialogue, the theoretical lenses they adopt, and their verdicts on the role of the West, on the other. Ultimately, it concludes that despite their differences in argumentation, the insights of both authors reveal that the current human rights framework does not adequately fulfil the needs and interests of women and queer individuals, serving as a stepping stone for future research as to how the system can be transformed to better serve all the individuals and groups it claims to serve.
Copyright (c) 2025 Christina Yuen https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Solidarity and Responsibility-Sharing: Does the Global Compact on Refugees advance core principles of international refugee law?
It is well established that there is a substantial gap between rhetoric and state practice of solidarity in international refugee protection. This article reflects on the Global Compact on Refugee’s normative impact in advancing the principle of solidarity and responsibility-sharing for the refugee crisis. First, the article will introduce current inequitable responses to refugee protection, evidenced by Global North states’ strategies of deterrence and externalisation of borders. Then, the article will briefly discuss the development of international refugee law, with a specific focus on the normative gap regarding international solidarity and responsibility-sharing, which the Compact intended to fill. At this juncture, the perspectives of postcolonial scholars are introduced to centre the critique on the Compact’s failings within the broader discussion of international law’s colonial roots and neo-colonial impacts. Finally, the future of responsibility sharing for international refugee protection is pondered in an effort to understand whether it is possible for international refugee law frameworks to equitably address and remedy the historical injustices of colonial project which perpetuate the contemporary crisis.
Copyright (c) 2025 Charlotte Stump https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Intersection of International Criminal Law and Human Rights Law: A Philosophical Inquiry into the Paradox of Justice
This study undertakes a philosophical examination of the intersection of international criminal law and human rights law, revealing the paradoxical tensions between the pursuit of justice and the protection of human rights. Through a critical analysis of the normative foundations of these two fields, this research discloses the differing ontological and epistemological assumptions underlying international criminal law and human rights law. Employing a qualitative research methodology, this study conducts an in-depth examination of the major international criminal law and human rights law instruments, including the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Additionally, this research undertakes a critical discourse analysis of the jurisprudence of international criminal law and human rights law institutions, including the International Criminal Court and the European Court of Human Rights. This study argues that the paradox of justice at the intersection of international criminal law and human rights law stems from the differing conceptions of justice and human rights that underlie these two fields. While international criminal law prioritizes retributive justice and the punishment of perpetrators, human rights law emphasizes restorative justice and the protection of human dignity. To reconcile this paradox, this research proposes a philosophical framework that integrates the insights of both fields. Drawing on the concepts of "justice as recognition" and "human rights as capabilities," this study develops a novel approach to understanding the intersection of international criminal law and human rights law. The findings of this study contribute to a deeper understanding of the complex relationships between justice, human rights, and international law. This research informs strategies for enhanced cooperation and accountability between international criminal law and human rights law institutions, ultimately promoting a more just and equitable international legal order. This study employs a qualitative research methodology, including critical discourse analysis and philosophical inquiry. The research questions guiding this study include: What are the differing ontological and epistemological assumptions underlying international criminal law and human rights law? How do these differing assumptions give rise to the paradox of justice at the intersection of international criminal law and human rights law? How can a philosophical framework that integrates the insights of both fields reconcile this paradox?. The study's findings suggest that a philosophical framework that integrates the insights of both fields is necessary to reconcile the paradox of justice. The research also highlights the importance of enhanced cooperation and accountability between international criminal law and human rights law institutions in promoting a more just and equitable international legal order. The key lessons from this study include the importance of understanding the complex relationships between justice, human rights, and international law, and the need for a philosophical framework that integrates the insights of both fields. The study also emphasizes the importance of enhanced cooperation and accountability between international criminal law and human rights law institutions.
Copyright (c) 2025 Calistus Abang https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Capacity of Indonesia as a Source Country in Enabling Trafficking in Person
This paper examines the analytical discussion that Indonesia, as an origin or source country, has an enabling role in trafficking in person (TIP). It argues that the failure of the government’s institutional and social dimensions in the source countries is the main reason which facilitates the widespread acts of TIP in Indonesia. This article consolidates insights from the extensive literature on the combination of the sociology, criminology, politics, economy and cultural aspects of TIP to find the key drivers of TIP in the source country. In this regard, it asserts that the institutional factors, failure of effective bureaucracy, the lack of fiscal capacity, and weak border-security management can create a permissive situation for TIP and maintain the prevalence of trafficking flows. While the social aspects, with the government’s ineffective social assistance policy, can pertain acts of TIP as it is unable to address the root causes of economic viability at the individual levels.
Copyright (c) 2025 Devina Millenia https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Invisible Killings: The Epidemic of Transfemicide
The killing of transgender women is a widespread social problem throughout the world. Nonetheless, these crimes are often made invisible by their mislabeling and the lack of research surrounding them. This paper provides a contribution which explores the reconceptualization of the killing of transgender women from anti-trans hate crimes to transfemicide. This paper uses a case-study approach to analyse the killings of transgender women in Argentina and specifically the case of Diana Sacayàn and its judgment. By exploring the differences that arise between naming the murder as a hate crime, femicide or transfemicide the paper positions itself in the politics of naming. Indeed, the argument is made that transfemicide is the only term able to capture the unique experiences of transgender women because of their inherent intersectional identities and the continuum of violence and discrimination they face in their day-to-day life often ending in their murder.
Copyright (c) 2025 Martina Semino https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Lacunae in the Rome Statute for the Exercise of Universal Jurisdiction by the International Criminal Court
The issue of “universal jurisdiction” reveals a legal chasm in the applicability of the Rome Statute and have plagued the International Criminal Court with criticisms for not having the right to exercise such jurisdiction over international crimes. Universal jurisdiction can be simply defined as “the exercise of jurisdiction regardless of any other acknowledged jurisdictional relationship to a State party to the Statute”. This question of universal jurisdiction becomes especially important when currently, the Court is recently struggling to exercise jurisdiction over the crimes committed in the Philippines, in the context of their government’s "War on Drugs" campaign, due to the withdrawal of the country as a State Party to the Statute on March 17, 2019. This article provides an insight into such lacunae of the Statute in terms of adequately preparing the ICC for exercising its jurisdiction in such situations or cases.
Copyright (c) 2025 Anwesha Mishra https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Mafia State: Criminal Governance in Sinaloa, Mexico, in 2006-2016
Organised crime has often adopted mixed characteristics, often shifting away from its central economic identity and evolving into a social and political actor. Mexican drug-trafficking organisations are one such manifestation of this mixed character, increasingly so since the 2006 militarisation of the War on Drugs during the Calderón administration. During the first 10 years, Mexico faced a sharp increase in violence and the pervasive influence of organised crime in politics, sparking debates of whether it has become a “narco-state” or a “mafia state.” This paper demonstrates that this development of the War marks an increasingly political nature of the Sinaloa Cartel in a two-level conflict against the federal government and other drug-trafficking organisations vying for power and influence. The research highlights that the political nature of drug-trafficking has been present in Mexico since the early 20th century but returned to strengthen and reinforce economic power derived from criminal activities. This historical political nature is only possible with the presence of a weak state, allowing for a crime-governance nexus to develop and embed the illicit drug trade in Mexican society, thereby further strengthening and legitimising the political character of the Sinaloa Cartel. Tackling drug-trafficking will remain at the top of the political and security agenda for the foreseeable future. However, understanding the political dynamics and interactions between organized criminal groups and the government will be crucial to comprehending the ongoing development of the War on Drugs.
Copyright (c) 2025 Fracia Baeke https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Role of Hate Speech in Inciting Genocide: A Case Study of Radio Television Libre des Mille Collines in Rwanda
This research investigates the critical role of Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines (RTLM) in inciting the 1994 Rwandan genocide. Examining the station's establishment, programming, and rhetoric within the historical and political context of pre-colonial, colonial, and post-independence Rwanda, this study argues that RTLM functioned as a powerful instrument of propaganda, directly contributing to the mass violence. The research analyzes how RTLM systematically dehumanized the Tutsi population through derogatory language and stereotypes, portraying them as "cockroaches" and enemies of the state, thus lowering psychological barriers to violence. By combining popular music, talk shows, and news broadcasts, RTLM effectively disseminated hate speech to a broad audience, particularly the youth, who were later mobilized as perpetrators. This study further explores the correlation between specific RTLM broadcasts and outbreaks of violence, demonstrating the station's direct role in triggering and escalating the genocide. Through an examination of key International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) judgments, including the Nahimana et al. and Ruggiu cases, this research analyzes the legal implications of RTLM's actions, emphasizing the responsibility of media actors in inciting genocide. Finally, the research discusses the implications for international law and policy on hate speech, genocide prevention, and media regulation, highlighting the crucial lessons learned from the Rwandan tragedy and suggesting future directions for preventing similar atrocities.
Copyright (c) 2025 Rawnak https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0